The atrocities committed by Nazi physicians and researchers during World War II prompted the development of the Nuremberg Code to define the ethics of modern medical experimentation utilizing human subjects. Since its enunciation; the Code has been viewed as one of the cornerstones of modern bioethical thought. The sources and ramifications of this important document are thoroughly discussed in this book by a distinguished roster of contemporary professionals from the fields of history; philosophy; medicine; and law. Contributors also include the chief prosecutor of the Nuremberg Military Tribunal and a moving account by a survivor of the Mengele Twin Experiments. The book sheds light on keenly debated issues of both science and jurisprudence; including the ethics of human experimentation; the doctrine of informed consent; and the Code's impact on today's international human rights agenda. The historical setting of the Code's creation; some modern parallels; and the current attitude of German physicians toward the crimes of the Nazi era; are discussed in early chapters. The book progresses to a powerful account of the Doctors' Trial at Nuremberg; its resulting verdict; and the Code's development. The Code's contemporary influence on both American and international law is examined in its historical context and discussed in terms of its universality: are the foundational ethics of the Code as valid today as when it was originally penned? The editors conclude with a chapter on foreseeable future developments and a proposal for an international covenant on human experimentation enforced by an international court. A major work in medical law and ethics; this volume provides stimulating; provocative reading for physicians; legal professionals; bioethicists; historians; biomedical researchers; and concerned laypersons.
#293257 in Books Richard P Mitchell 1993-07-29Original language:EnglishPDF # 1 5.50 x .81 x 8.13l; 1.20 #File Name: 0195084373392 pagesThe Society of the Muslim Brothers
Review
0 of 0 people found the following review helpful. Five StarsBy M BA stellar history of the beginnings and development of the Muslim Brotherhood.1 of 1 people found the following review helpful. The Society of the Muslim Brothers; traces the evolution ...By HollyThe Society of the Muslim Brothers; traces the evolution of the modern world’s largest and most influential Islamic society founded in 1928 by Hasan al-Banna. The author; Richard O. Mitchell; chronicles three ‘phases’ of the Brotherhood from its roots in the small town of Isma’iliyya; Egypt; through its burgeoning popularity to the execution of prominent leaders after an assassination attempt on Egyptian President Gamal ‘Abd al-Nasser in 1954. Al-Banna established the group based on a strong belief in Islamic ideals including firm democratic principals; but his ‘mastery over his followers was complete and inclusive; almost approaching sorcery;’ and he led the Brothers in kind of cult of personality. The change in leadership after the death of al-Banna; brought a leader less charismatic but also less amenable to violence and here the internal struggles of the Brotherhood became manifest. Providing not only a chronological account of the evolution of the Brotherhood; Mitchell also meticulously dissects its inner workings and structure; including the driving ideological principals. The Brotherhood revolted against imperialism (‘a slow annihilation and profound and complete corruption’ of Egypt) and valued education for women as ‘not only desirable but necessary and in the same measure…as for men.’ Mitchell meticulously explains the elaborate structure of the group; it grew with ‘three stages of loyalty’ and various levels of individual commitment through a vast network of overt; legal and public operations as well as the clandestine ‘secret apparatus’ blamed for much of the violence eventually perpetrated by Brotherhood members.Providing superb scholarship on the Muslim Brothers; who remain a preeminent powerful nationalist Islamic movement in the Middle East; Mitchell presents key historical issues around the Brotherhood and its evolution. Of special interest to the student of the Arab World; the author elucidates the close relationship between Gamal ‘Abd al-Nasser’s Free Officers and the Brotherhood in arming the secret apparatus and in the coup against the palace in 1952. After al-Banna’s assassination; the success of the movement perpetuated from sheer momentum and by those still bound to him; ‘by the residual glow after the flames had died down.’ Mitchell’s work proves insightful for anyone interested in the dynamics between Islamic movements and state governments today. The nationalist fervor; which characterized much of the principal goals of the Brotherhood; proved both the life’s blood and the Achilles heel of the group. Nationalism—in combination with unquestioning religious conviction—‘governments of all shades have been unable to tolerate.’23 of 24 people found the following review helpful. A classical work on the Muslim Brotherhood from 1928 to 1954By A CustomerMitchell's book is obviously dated by now; published in 1969 and has been republished in 1993. At first; I wonder whether it is still worth a reading given that there are a lot more recent works in the field as a result of the proliferation of literature on the Islamist movements in recent decades. Having read this book; I must admit that Mitchell's book continues to be a significant contribution in our understanding of Islamism. The book covers periods of Ikhwan foundation in 1928 till its second suppression in 1954. The focus is on Egypt without dealing with various manifestations of the movement outside of the country. The book can be divided into three parts. The first and largest is history of the movement. It sheds interesting light on al-Banna; the founder of the movement; and the roles the movement played in political events including its attitude toward the 1952 revolution. The second part deals with the details of the organizational aspect of the movement while the third part concentrates on its ideology with special reference to its world-view as regards the West; Egypt; capitalism; communism; and Zionism. The final chapter assess the place of the movement in Egyptian social and political life. The most impressive aspect of this study is Mitchell's utilization of the sources. Through his field works in Egypt in 1953-5 Mitchell was able to witness the development first hand and to conduct interviews with many of the Ikhwan members and other Egyptians. Furthermore; Mitchell uses Arabic language sources; including the writings of the prominent figures of the movement such as al-Banna and Muhammad al-Ghazali; and Qutb along with the writings of other Egyptian unconnected with the society as well as Ikhwan's own publications and documents. In addition; the author also utilizes Egyptian newspapers and numerous Western studies on various aspects the subject. One common (distorted) image of the movement according to the author is associating Ikhwan with violence. Mitchell dismisses the common view attributing the movement as revolutionary; and terrorist. Mitchell argues that the revolutionary image of the movement is misleading because whatever the(revolutionary) view of certain groups or members; the leadership had no wish to seize power either in 1948 or 1954. As a matter of fact; Mitchell adds that Al-Banna always emphasized that the movement primary roles were educational and to influence the policies of those in power in establishing the Islamic pattern of behavior in the society rather than to achieve power for themselves The revolutionary image of the society apparently derived from its semiautonomous "secret apparatus" which advocated violence; but this attitude was confined to this group and not the organization as a whole. In addition; Mitchell argues that tendency toward violence was not confined to some segments of the Brothers; but it was almost a universal tendency in the national politics as a result of disillusionment with parliamentary government which characterized Egyptian politics between 1942-1952. Mitchell also debunks the common view that the society was dogmatic; static and reactionary organization dedicated to restore the seventh century concept of the Muslim state. He states that despite its aspiration for the implementation of Islamic principles in the society; Ikhwan demonstrated its open-minded attitude toward the interpretation of Shariah as reflected in their readiness to open the door of Ijtihad. Although there is a tendency toward Hanbali strict uncompromising attitude in the movement; the author argues that there was also a strong consciousness among the brothers that they were part of Islamic reformist tradition of Abduh; Afghani; and Ridha and shared the same intent of adaptation of Islam to meet modern challenges. As a matter of fact Banna and Hudaybi are depicted as promoting a reformist role for the society. The society's dynamic commercial and welfare activities and to a lesser degree its effort to form an auxiliary Muslim sister "wing" demonstrate the "modernized" and pragmatic aspect of the society. The success of the society can be attributed to al-Banna himself; whom Mitchell repeatedly refers to as a charismatic leader. In chapter one; Mitchell provides a brief account of al-Banna's early years regarding his gifted ability to communicate; to inspire and to influence. Furthermore; Mitchell presents considerable amount of evidence throughout the book demonstrating the charisma in Banna and his "brothers" relationship. However; the death of al-Banna and ascendancy of Hudaybi as the General Guide of the movement posed a serious challenge for the movement. Without a charismatic leader and effective leadership; the society failed in dealing with problems associated with leadership- succession; discipline; consensus and even the loss of control over secret apparatus. My impression from Mitchell's account is that the relative success of the movement under Banna can be attributed to the leadership quality. However; the author's treatment of leadership is inadequate; primarily emphasizing the personality of Banna and leaving out the roles of elite members of the movement such as the Guidance Council and the Secretariat. In light of my own understanding that a good number of Ikhwan prominent figures are not (strictly speaking) the graduates of Islamic studies; It would also be desirable to learn something about the society's elite such as their educational training and class background. In this regard Mitchell's book is less helpful. Despite the proliferation of literature on the Islamist movement in recent decades; Mitchell's book continues to have a class of its own; especially for those aspiring to learn about the development of the movement in Egypt from its foundation to 1954. One wish that the author could have also covered the influence of the movement outside Egypt; most notably in Palestine; Jordan and Syria.
